2.Einstein and his quantum mechanics
2.1.Study objective of quantum mechanics
Matter in nature exists at multiple scales, spanning from the vast cosmic space, macroscopic celestial bodies, conventional objects, tiny particles, fibers, crystals, to the microscopic scale of molecules, atoms, and elementary particles. Forms of mechanics motion encompass movement, rotation, flow, deformation, vibration, fluctuation, diffusion, among which the balance and stillness status is the special state of motion. Mechanical motion stands as the most fundamental form of material motion, while other forms of material motion include thermal motion, electromagnetic motion, atomic and internal motion, as well as chemical motion, but mechanical motion usually co-exists with other forms of motion [14].
Photon that was also defined as light quantum referred to a kind of elementary particle transmitting electromagnetic interactions, which was a gauge boson proposed by Einstein in 1905 and was subsequently officially named by an American physical chemist, Gilbert Lewis, in 1926. It was proposed that photons were the carriers of electromagnetic radiation and in theory of quantum physics, photons were considered as mediators of electromagnetic interactions. The static mass of photons was deemed to be zero, and photons moved at the speed of light, which possessed the properties of energy, momentum and mass [15].
2.2.Attributes of photons
When Einstein pointed out that in addition to energy ε, photons must also be characterized by using the attribute of impulse, the direction of which corresponded to the direction of light propagation, in order to improve the interpretation of photons. According to his theory of special relativity, compared with most elementary particles, photons possessed zero mass in static, which meant that their propagation speed in vacuum was the speed of light. Like other quanta, photons showed wave particle duality: photons could exhibit wave properties, such as refraction, interference, diffraction and etc. like classical mechanics waves, while the particle nature of photons could be demonstrated by the photoelectric effect. Photons could only transmit quantized energy, so they were space-lattice particles [15].
After the establishment of the theory in quantum electrodynamics, it was confirmed that photons were the medium particles for transmitting electromagnetic interactions, so charged particles interacted each other by emitting or absorbing photons, and both positively and negatively charged particles could be annihilated, converting into photons, which could be generated in electromagnetic fields. More specifically, a pair of both positive and negative particles could annihilate into a pair of high-energy γ photons, while a pair of high-energy γ photons could also react at high temperature to generate a pair of positive and negative particles correspondingly. For example, the conversion of photons into baryons, such as protons and neutrons, could occur at high temperature T = 1015k. The positron - negative electron scattering, which was also named as Bha-Bha scattering, was interpreted by Feynman diagram, whose wave line represented the process of exchanging virtual photons [15].
Defined by the special relativity, photons were the particles in light that carried energy, which was proportional to the frequency of the light wave, so the higher the frequency, the higher the energy. When a photon was absorbed by an atom, an electron gained enough energy to transition from the inner orbit to the outer orbit, turning the atom from the ground state to the excited state [15].
2.3.Mass-Energy Equation
According to Einstein’s special relativity, the physical attributes could be converted into each other among photons’ energy, momentum and mass. On the basis of the mass-energy equation, E = mc2 = hν, the mass of photons could be calculated into: m = hν/c2, where parameters of h,ν and c were the Planck constant, frequency of light wave, light speed constant respectively, and particularly this mass was defined as the relative mass only without static nature [15].
Due to the differentiation of static mass from motion mass, there is the conception of ‘deficit conservation’ proposed: when a cluster of particles aggregates to form a composite object, due to the existence of interaction energy between the particles and the kinetic energy based on the relative motion, the aggregated object as a whole is stationary, whose total energy is generally not equal to the sum of the stationary energies of all particles. Consequently, the difference between these two is expressed as mass-energy inequation below [16]:
E0 ≠ ∑Mi0×c2
where Mi0 is the stationary mass of each elementary particle and is the total energy of aggregated object. According to the mass-energy equation, it is deduced that the difference between the two is attributed to the binding energy among the elementary particles of the aggregated object, which can be calculated as [16]:
∆E = ∑Mi0×c2 - E0
Where ∆E is represented as the binding energy of the aggregated object. Correspondingly, the static mass of an aggregated object is not equal to the sum of the static mass among the elementary particles that make up it, whose difference between the two is called mass loss (∆M), calculated as [16]:
∆M = ∑Mi0 - M0
Where M0 is the static mass of aggregated object. It is further deduced that there is the relationship between static mass loss and binding energy [16]:
∆E = ∆M × c2
2.4.Energy - Momentum equation
In vacuum, the velocity of photons was identical to the velocity of light, with the relationship between energy E and momentum P as: P = E/c, under the hypothesis of zero static mass. It was further deduced that both energy and momentum of photons were only related to the frequency ν of light wave (or it was only related to the wavelength λ of light wave), so the momentum of photon could be also calculated as: P = h/λ= hν/c; in comparison, for other elementary particles with static mass above zero in relativistic mechanics, the energy-momentum (E-P) relationship of a elementary particle with static mass (m0) was calculated as: E2 = (Pc)2 + (m0c2)2[15].
2.5.Explanation and modification of Einstein’s special relativity
However, another viewpoint disagreed with the meaning of the mass-energy equation above, which argued that the mass-energy equation did not reveal the conversion relationship between mass and energy, but the mass - energy equation only reflected the relationship between mass and energy in quantity. For a closed system in which mass was conserved and energy was also conserved, when the existing form of matter changed, the form of energy also changed correspondingly, but the mass was not converted into energy in the process of material reaction and conversion, so both mass and energy represented the properties of matter: mass property described inertia and gravitation, while energy property described the state of the system [16].
The mass-energy equation described the relationship between mass and energy, so it did not violate the law of conservation of mass. The formula showed that matter could be transformed into radiant energy, at the same time radiant energy could also be transformed into matter, which did not mean that matter would be eliminated, but the static mass of matter would be converted into another motion form [16].
Einstein firstly proposed that the formula showed that an object still possessed energy when it was stationary relative to a reference frame, which was contrary to Newton's system, because in Newton's system, a stationary object was deemed as zero-energy, which became the reason why the mass of an object was called a stationary mass. The variable of E in the formula could be regarded as the total energy of the object, which was proportional to the total mass of the object, including both static mass and mass in motion. Only when the object was stationary, it became proportional to the static mass of the object that was consistent with the 'mass' definition in Newton's system. He also argued that the total mass of the object was different from the static mass, by illustrating that a beam of photons propagating in a vacuum was deemed to possess zero static mass, but they showed motion energy, so they also had mass [16].
It was further explained that the static energy of an object was identical to its total internal energy, including the kinetic energy of molecular motion, the potential energy of inter-molecular interaction, the chemical energy that combined atoms with atoms, the electromagnetic energy that combined nuclei with electrons in atoms, and the binding energy connecting protons and neutrons in nuclei. The revelation of the static energy of matter was considered as one of the most important corollaries of relativity, which pointed out that there was still motion inside a static particle that had certain internal motion energy with certain mass; in turn, a particle with certain internal motion energy showed certain inertial mass correspondingly. In the process of elementary particle transformation, it was possible to release all the static energy contained in the particle, turning it into usable kinetic energy. For example, when a π meson decays into two photons, the static mass of the photons is zero and static energy disappears, so the π meson contains all the static energy of matter before it decays [16].
In summary, this mass-energy equation critically contributes to the development of the atomic bomb. By measuring the mass difference between the mass of nuclei and the sum mass of both independent protons and neutrons at the corresponding quantity, it is to obtain the estimated value of the binding energy contained in the nucleus, which does not only show the phenomenon that the nuclear binding energy may be released through both nuclear fusion (for lighter nuclei) and nuclear fission (for heavier nuclei), but also can be used to quantitatively estimate the amount of binding energy that will be released. It is worthwhile noting that the masses of both protons and neutrons do not disappear over the nuclear reaction process, whose mass also represents the energy value. This equation stems from Albert Einstein's study with regards to the relationship between the inertia of an object and its own energy. The famous conclusion of his study is that the mass of an object is actually to measure its internal energy. In order to better understand the importance of this relationship, it is to compare electromagnetic force with gravity force. According to the theory of electromagnetism, energy exists in both electric field and magnetic field that is related to force but independent of electric charges, whereas in the theory of universal gravitation, energy is contained in matter itself. Therefore, it is concluded that the mass of matter can distort space-time in his special relativity, but the other three basic interactions among elementary particles, including electromagnetic interaction, strong interaction and weak interaction, cannot achieve the space-time distortion [16].
2.6.Critical discussion of quantum mechanics
It is to further clarify some conceptions originally proposed in my previous articles:
2.6.1.Elementary particles and electric charge generation
In my previous article [10], it has been proposed that the magnetic line on the fourth dimension axis is perpendicular to the three-dimensional space and these magnetic elementary particles cut along the magnetic line on the fourth dimensional axis, thus generating electric charges. My another article has proposed that “in our three-dimension space, the protons are positively charged and the electrons are negatively charged; the materials in correspondingly symmetric three-dimensional space along the fourth dimension axis is called antimatter, in which the protons are negatively charged and the electrons are positively charged [3].” Consequently, the magnetic line that is perpendicular to our three-dimensional space is definitely the magnetic line connecting both symmetric three-dimensional spaces, and the elementary particle motion cutting along this perpendicular magnetic line is the spinning motion of elementary particle by itself. It can be easily deduced that the directions of spinning motion are opposite between protons and electrons along this perpendicular magnetic line connecting both symmetric three-dimensional spaces, so that their electric charges are positive and negative correspondingly.
My quantum physics article has defined that “quantum photon is the mass particle that is coated and surrounded by dark matter in the fourth dimension, so that its static mass can be hardly detected by particle collider instrument, but this particle must be the mass carrier for quantum energy.” It is further proposed that photons generate electromagnetic waves by the wave-like transmitting movement inside the dark matter, and this wave-like transmitting movement cuts the magnetic line along the fourth dimension axis that is parallel to the sphere surface of our three-dimensional space (different from the perpendicular magnetic line connecting both symmetric three-dimensional spaces). Electromagnetic waves are the energy form matter existing only as electric field and magnetic field. However, if the electromagnetic wave of energy form leaves the the carrier of photons, it can be easily absorbed by other materials (including dark matter) in this universe.
It is clarified that there are two kinds of the fourth dimensional axes defined in my journal: one is the axis along the magnetic line that is perpendicular to our three-dimensional space and connects two symmetric three-dimensional spaces, and the other one is the axis along the magnetic line that is parallel to the sphere surface of our three-dimensional space, as my previous articles [17][18] have demonstrated that the three-dimensional space where we are living is the curved sphere. My electromagnetism article has discussed the parallel space that “the propagation directions of the electric field and the magnetic field are parallel and opposite in the fourth dimension axis, but in the corresponding three-dimensional space, they turn to be the mutually vertical propagation directions due to the refraction effect [2],” and this magnetic line in the fourth dimension axis refers to the first magnetic line that is perpendicular to our three-dimensional space and connects two symmetric three-dimensional spaces. In summary, the generation of electric charges by the spinning motion of elementary particles in atom, the generating of electromagnetic wave by the wave-like transmitting movement of photons, and the change of magnetic line propagation direction due to the refraction effect at the sphere surface of our three-dimensional space are further demonstrated in Figure 1, Figure 2 and Figure 3, respectively.
Figure 1 illustrates the spinning motion of elementary particles in atom, generating electric charges. In this conceptional model, it is hypothesized that protons spin from left to right direction, while electrons spin from right to left, and both proton and electron’s spinning motion cuts the perpendicular magnetic line connecting both symmetric three-dimensional spaces, thus generating positive and negative charges respectively. In comparison, neutrons spin from up to down, whose spinning motion direction is parallel to the perpendicular magnetic line connecting both symmetric three-dimensional spaces, consequently generating little electric charges.
Figure 2 illustrates the generation of electromagnetic wave by the wave-like transmitting movement of photons in dark matter. The wave-like movement of photon can be divided into two sub-vectors: one is the transmitting movement (indicated by the blue arrow) along the magnetic line that is parallel to the sphere surface of our three-dimensional space, releasing magnetic field energy, and the other one is the cutting movement (indicated by the red arrow) against this magnetic line, releasing electric field energy. Consequently, this motion model also reveals both magnetic and electric energy distribution characteristics of electromagnetic wave in three-dimension space.
Further more, when the elementary particles decay, it displays as the spring-like shaking movement, whose direction is vertical to the sphere surface of our three-dimensional space (in Figure 1), thus generating longitudinal wave (such as rays); in comparison, the electromagnetic wave generated by the wave-like transmitting movement of photons in dark matter is the transverse wave.
Figure 3. The propagation direction of both magnetic line and electric line between two symmetric three-dimensional spaces. Download: 10.13140/RG.2.2.27918.88643
In Figure 3, there are two symmetric three-dimensional spaces outlined (our three-dimensional space is on the left and the symmetric three-dimensional antimatter space is on the right in Figure 3). Between both symmetric three-dimensional spaces, the space is defined as the ‘parallel space’, in which the propagation directions of the electric field and the magnetic field are parallel and opposite (the red line indicates electric field line and the blue line indicates magnetic field line). In our three-dimensional space, the propagation directions of magnetic line and electric line become mutually vertical, but the refraction effect at the sphere surface of our three-dimensional space leads both to change the propagation directions as shown in Figure 3.
2.6.2.Mass-Energy equation
My article agrees with Einstein’s special relativity which firstly argues that mass can be converted into energy, disagreeing with the ‘energy/mass conservation Law.’ It is further proposed that nuclear fusion reaction converts the mass of elementary particles into energy, while nuclear fission reaction converts the mass of dark matter into energy that is also the indicator of binding energy among elementary particles. Consequently, the mass of matter, including dark matter and elementary particles, is regarded as a kind of the form for energy storage.
2.6.3.Theenergy-momentum equation of elementary particle
Figure 2 has divided the movement of photon into two sub-vectors, indicated by the blue arrow and red arrow respectively, so the momentum of photon is correspondingly divided into two kinds of vector momentum as well. It can be deduced that the cycle of the wave-like mechanical movement of photon (shown in Figure 2) determines the frequency (ν) of the correspondingly generated electromagnetic waves, so the relationship between momentum of photons and energy can be further modified into: the electric energy (Ee) is positively correlated with its corresponding momentum (indicated by the red arrow) of photon and is negatively correlated with the wavelength (λ) of the wave-like mechanical movement (or positively correlated with the frequency of the wave-like mechanical movement). Consequently, the vector momentum of photon (indicated by the red arrow) can be calculated into P1 = a×Ee/λ, where the variable P1 and parameter a is the vector momentum of photon (indicated by the red arrow) and its corresponding constant, respectively; the magnetic energy (Em) is positively correlated with the light speed (c) and its corresponding momentum (indicated by the blue arrow), so the vector momentum of photon (indicated by the blue arrow) is calculated as: P2 = b×Em×c, where the variable P2 and parameter b is the vector momentum of photon (indicated by the blue arrow) and its corresponding constant, respectively. Obviously, the variables of both Ee and Em of light waves can be feasibly measured in experiment, so that variables of both P1 and P2, together with constant a and b, can be correspondingly estimated according to the regression analysis.
In my quantum mechanics article, it is argued that “when two beams of charged particle collide in the particle collider, under the condition that the law of electromagnetic induction can be ignored, the kinetic mechanics of a beam of charged micro-particles only conforms to the principle of fluid mechanics (such as pressure calculations), and is not applicable on the mechanical energy law of solid collision (such as conservation of momentum).[1]” My article further proposes that the beams of charged elementary particles in the particle collider and the emitted charged elementary particles during the atom decaying process also show the wave-like mechanical movement over the transmitting process due to the nature of dark-matter, which is similar to photon’s movement shown in Figure 2, but their static mass can be detected in experiment, because their aggregated masses display in our three-dimensional space. However, the static mass of elementary particles is not constant in our three-dimensional space, as my quantum mechanics article has proposed that “These elementary micro-particles randomly fluctuate along the fourth dimension axis, so the mass of micro-particles in the three dimensions space isn't constant.[1]” Hence Figure 4 of this article has further illustrated this movement model of the beams of charged elementary particles in the particle collider in more details.
Figure 4. The mass of elementary particle in the acceleration motion process inside particle collider. Download: 10.13140/RG.2.2.11672.51201
As shown in Figure 4, the movement model of a beam of charged elementary particles in the particle collider instrument displays as the wave-like transmitting motion due to the nature of dark matter. The boundary between the dark matter of the fourth dimensional axis and our three-dimensional space becomes the line partitioning the static mass that displays in our three dimensional space and can be consequently measurable by using equipment. At the wave peak, the static mass displaying in our three dimensional space is the highest, then decreasing with the transmitting direction, and shows the smallest at the wave bottom position. Consequently, the static mass of elementary particles that display in our three-dimensional space varies with the wave-like transmitting motion, so the energy-momentum (E-P) equation for elementary particles with static mass is further modified into:
E2 = α×(P×ν)2 + (m0×c2)2
In this equation, the part of α×(P×ν)2 represents the energy generated by the vector motion (indicated by the red arrow) that is vertical to the boundary between dark matter and three-dimensional space, in which the parameter α is the constant; the equation part of (m0×c2)2 represents the energy generated by the vector motion (indicated by the blue arrow) that is parallel to the particle acceleration motion direction, in which the variable m0 is the static mass of elementary particles, and the variable c is the acceleration motion speed.
3. Black body
3.1.Blackbody radiation and absorption
An ‘absolute blackbody’ is a theoretical model that refers to an object absorbing all light at any wavelengths without any reflection. Once a beam of light wave penetrates into a cavity through a slit hole, it is difficult for the light wave to pass through the same slit hole in the opposite direction, and the opening of this cavity can be considered a blackbody (Figure 5 (left)). In theory all objects in the world are constantly absorbing and emitting infrared radiation, and a blackbody is considered as the ideal emitter and absorber of infrared radiation in this theory. For example, black holes are the typically idealized absolute blackbodies, which absorb the infrared waves of all wavelengths [19].
Experiments have shown that under the condition that a blackbody reaches equilibrium with thermal radiation, the radiation energy density (Er) is only related to the thermodynamic temperature (T) of the blackbody, which is independent of the shape and composition of the cavity[19]. In the radiation spectral line of blackbodies, the color of light varies with the temperature ascending, which exhibits a gradual transition from red → orange red → yellow → yellow white → white → blue white. When the color of a light source appears to be the same as the color of light emitted by a blackbody at a certain temperature (T), the temperature of the blackbody is called the color temperature of the light source. The higher the temperature of a blackbody, the more blue light wave components contained in its spectrum, while the less red light wave component is emitted from the light source. For example, the color of incandescent lamps is warm white, with a color temperature of 2700K, while the color temperature of daylight fluorescent lamps is 6000K, emitting fluorescent light waves [20].
Kirchhoff Radiation Law hypothesizes that under thermal equilibrium, the ratio of the energy radiated by an object to the absorptivity is irrelevant with the physical properties of the object itself, but is only related with wavelength and temperature. According to Kirchhoff Radiation Law, at a certain temperature, a blackbody must be the object with the greatest radiation capacity, consequently called as the complete radiator, which means that blackbody radiation reaches the maximum amount of emission at a specific temperature and wavelength. At the same time, blackbody is an object that can absorb all incident radiation and will not reflect any radiation, the colour of which is not necessarily black. For example, the sun is a gaseous planet, which can be considered that the electromagnetic radiation emitted to the sun is difficult to be reflected back, so the sun is considered that the sun is a blackbody, although the absolute blackbody does not really exist. Theoretically, blackbody does not only absorbs electromagnetic waves of all wavelengths in the spectrum, but also emits electromagnetic waves of all wavelengths in the spectrum. Wien’s displacement law describes the relationship between the peak wavelength of the electromagnetic radiation energy flux density and the temperature of blackbody, which is further developed by Planck [20].
Planck hypothesis: there are charged linear harmonic oscillators in the radiation material, and these harmonic oscillators can only exist under certain States. Under these States, the corresponding energy is the integral multiple of the minimum energy ε that is defined as energy quantum, so the radiation energy is expressed as: ε, 2ε, 3ε, nε,..., among which n is a positive integer. According to this hypothesis, the famous Planck blackbody radiation formula is derived:
Where ρ is the radiation energy density, v is the frequency of harmonic oscillators, T is the temperature, h is the Planck constant, λ is the wavelength, c is the light speed, and k is the Boltzmann constant. In this Planck blackbody radiation formula, the radiation energy density is the function of variable v and T, which is the improved formula of Stefan-Boltzmann formula.
3.2. Original discussion of blackbody radiation and absorption
My article has firstly proposed that “According to the Figure 1 of my article [11], it is to further discuss the argument of the shielding effect of the electric field inside an atom and its effects on the electron orbitals; Multiple equipotential lines are formed between the zones of constructive interference and the zones of destructive interference.” Consequently, it is here to argue that the shielding effect of the equipotential field lines inside an atom or a molecule causes the phenomenon of ‘blackbody’ radiation and absorption described above.
As can be seen from Figure 5 (left), the structure of sphere ‘shell’ and the slit hole on the shell explains the old ‘blackbody’ formation theory, but my new theory proposes that the equipotential field lines inside an atom or a molecule play the role in the shielding effect instead of the ‘shell’ of ‘blackbody’. After the radiation waves have penetrated into the equipotential field lines, this shielding effect does not only stop the radiation waves from releasing out of the atom, but also causes a small proportion of radiation waves that reflect on the surface of the shielding lines, shown in Figure 5 (middle). Consequently, an ‘absolute blackbody’ does not really exist. When the temperature ascends, free electron shifts from inner atomic orbital to the outer orbital, so that the equipotential field line causing shielding effects is shifted correspondingly (shown in Figure 5 (right)), which results in the variation of ‘blackbody’ radiation waves, expressed as different color temperature discussed above.
It is further concluded that the shielding effects of the equipotential field line inside an atom or molecule plays the important role in the conserving the energy of an atom or molecule, and keeping the stable structure of elementary particles, whose mechanism is similar to the ‘blackbody’ theory.
发表于 2024-2-17 13:09:40
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